System and method for energy storage and retrieval

ABSTRACT

Disclosed herein is a system for storing and releasing energy, comprising a generator/motor subsystem; a hydraulic pump for pumping hydraulic fluid between first and second pump ports in response to force applied by the generator/motor subsystem and also capable of imparting force to the generator/motor subsystem in response to hydraulic fluid being caused to flow between the first and second pump ports; a first compression/expansion vessel for exchanging hydraulic fluid with the hydraulic pump via the first pump port; a second compression/expansion vessel for exchanging hydraulic fluid with the hydraulic pump via the second pump port; a gas storage subsystem for selectively storing gas from, or releasing gas to, the first and second gas compression/expansion vessels; an internal heat exchanger within each of the first and second compression/expansion vessels for exchanging heat between the hydraulic fluid and the gas therein, each internal heat exchanger having a very large thermal mass relative to the mass of gas within the first and second compression/expansion vessels; a control subsystem for controlling at least a plurality of gas valves associated with the gas storage subsystem to switch between the storing and releasing, wherein, during storing, responsive to hydraulic fluid being pumped by the hydraulic pump between the first and second pump ports, gas is caused to be compressed in the gas storage subsystem thereby to store energy, and wherein, during releasing, responsive to pressure from release of compressed gas from the gas storage subsystem, hydraulic fluid is forced to flow between the first and second pump ports thereby to release energy.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. 119(e) from U.S.Provisional Patent Application No. 61/322,778 filed on Apr. 9, 2010,U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/446,387 filed on Feb. 24,2011, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/443,171 filed on Feb.15, 2011, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/467,168 filedon Mar. 24, 2011, the contents of each of which are incorporated hereinby reference in their entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This application relates generally to power conversion and energystorage, and more particularly to systems and methods for and relatingto storing and retrieving energy in and from compressed gas.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

It is desirable to develop both processes and apparatus which will allowfor efficient storage and retrieval of energy. Improvements in energystorage and retrieval have important applications in many differentfields, such as in systems in automobiles, or the buffering of energyproduced by intermittent sources (like wind turbines or solar panels) sothat the energy may be accumulated, stored and then released when needed(or when the price is highest in reflection of that need).

Many different types of energy storage system are already well known.The most common of these are rechargeable electrical batteries includingsimple common examples like lead acid batteries in automobiles, andextending to more recent innovations in Lithium ion based and othercells. Rechargeable electrical cells are among the most widely usedcommon energy storage/retrieval systems. In other scales and timeframes—flywheels may be used to keep the rotational speed of generatorsor shafts constant, water may be pumped up hill to provide large scaleenergy storage and retrieval systems when used in conjunction withhydroelectric dams, and at least two instances exist of Compressed AirEnergy Storage (CAES) where wind farms (or other intermittent sources)are used to generate electricity which is used to power compressorswhich pump compressed air into underground caverns where the potentialenergy within the compressed air remains stored. The stored energy maythen be used to provide most of the drive to gas expansion turbines(like the General Electric LM2500) but because of the thermodynamics ofexpanding gas from 1000 psi to 15 psi (1 atmosphere) large temperaturelosses occur within the expanded gas, and to maintain an operationalsystem natural gas must be burned in the gas turbines to provideadequate heat to allow for “reasonable” operating temperatures.

There are known problems with known CAES systems, and these relate totwo specific areas. First, known systems are not truly “renewable”because they rely on the burning of natural gas (or some other fuel) toprovide heat to balance the thermodynamics of the system. Second, theyare relatively inefficient with a total efficiency of between 30 and 40percent (where efficiency is defined as the amount of energy out dividedby the amount of energy in).

Rufer et al. in WO 2008-139267 have identified the ultimate basicefficiencies possible through the use of piston compression andexpansion of gas, and in particular through the use of liquid pistons toachieve this compression/expansion. Rufer et al. teach the use of ashuttling device to separate hydraulic motor pump fluid from the workingfluids of the storage vessel, and about the energy densities, andefficiencies which are attainable with such an apparatus. Rufer et al.further teach that heat exchange within the “liquid piston” part of theapparatus will improve the possible energy densities. If one chooseseither of two boundary conditions for the physical system responsiblefor the gas compression expansion—either adiabatic or isothermal, thenit follows that the process itself (not realizable in a real worldapparatus) could be 100 percent efficient. Rufer et al. teach, however,that a process which is quasi-isothermal will achieve much better energystorage densities per unit volume of compressed gas.

Further details are provided in the Ph. D. thesis of SylvainLEMOFOUET—GATSI, entitled “Investigation and optimisation of hybridelectricity storage systems based on compressed air andsupercapacitors.” (Thesis N 3628 (2006), Swiss Federal Institute ofTechnology, Lausanne (EPFL Lausanne—Switzerland).

Van de Ven and Li (Applied Energy 86, 10) teach of the high efficiencies(greater than 83 percent) obtainable with liquid piston compressors.

Kenway at el. in PCT Application Publication WO 2009-076757 teach thatthe thermodynamics may be better managed by limiting the gas compressionratios to approximately 3.2:1. The disclosed apparatus makes use ofcommon commercially-available components to achieve the implementationof hydraulic-pneumatic compression.

Adler and Siebert in PCT Application Publication WO 2006-034748 furtherteach of the practical realizable design of a device for compressing agaseous medium, particularly hydrogen. It is taught that by use of anappropriate liquid (an ionic liquid), it is possible to achieve veryhigh compression (and compression ratios) since the full advantages ofliquid pistons can be exploited without fear of cavitation of the drivepump(s)/motor(s).

Cavitation (or fizz) is the highly destructive appearance of bubblesformed by entrained gases and usually nucleated around small impuritiesin the hydraulic fluid. If the expansion of the gas is for example 1000times, then a bubble that was entrained at a scale of 10 microns expandsto 10 mm with the destructive force of a small explosion.

Adler and Siebert and Van Ven and Li further teach that the liquidpistons easily accommodate heat exchangers in the compression chamber(or cylinder) so that maintaining quasi-isothermal conditions is muchmore easily achieved than with conventional compressors or expanders.

The following references are also of use for understanding the state ofthe art: U.S. Pat. No. 3,947,736 (Byers et al.); U.S. Pat. No. 4,286,203(Ehret); U.S. Pat. No. 3,971,972 (Stitch); U.S. Pat. No. 4,128,793(Stitch); U.S. Pat. No. 4,618,810 (Hagerman et al.); U.S. Pat. No.4,364,073 (Becke et al.); Bose, Bimal K. (1980). Adjustable Speed ACDrive Systems. New York: IEEE Press. ISBN 0-87942-146-0; Heinlein, R.(1982). Friday. New York, Holt Reinhart and Winston-Shipstone

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with an aspect, there is provided a system for storing andreleasing energy, comprising a generator/motor subsystem; a hydraulicpump for pumping hydraulic fluid between first and second pump ports inresponse to force applied by the generator/motor subsystem and alsocapable of imparting force to the generator/motor subsystem in responseto hydraulic fluid being caused to flow between the first and secondpump ports; a first compression/expansion vessel for exchanginghydraulic fluid with the hydraulic pump via the first pump port; asecond compression/expansion vessel for exchanging hydraulic fluid withthe hydraulic pump via the second pump port; a gas storage subsystem forselectively storing gas from, or releasing gas to, the first and secondgas compression/expansion vessels; an internal heat exchanger withineach of the first and second compression/expansion vessels forexchanging heat between the hydraulic fluid and the gas therein, eachinternal heat exchanger having a very large thermal mass relative to themass of gas within the first and second compression/expansion vessels; acontrol subsystem for controlling at least a plurality of gas valvesassociated with the gas storage subsystem to switch between the storingand releasing, wherein, during storing, responsive to hydraulic fluidbeing pumped by the hydraulic pump between the first and second pumpports, gas is caused to be compressed in the gas storage subsystemthereby to store energy, and wherein, during releasing, responsive topressure from release of compressed gas from the gas storage subsystem,hydraulic fluid is forced to flow between the first and second pumpports thereby to release energy.

Other aspects and embodiments are disclosed herein.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Embodiments will now be described more fully with reference to theaccompanying drawings in which:

FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a system for storing and retrievingenergy using compressed gas, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of connections of a control subsystem withvarious components of the system of FIG. 1;

FIGS. 3A and 3B are diagrams of a compression/expansion vessel for thesystem of FIG. 1 without an internal heat exchanger, and respectivedifferent hydraulic fluid levels therewithin;

FIGS. 3C and 3D are diagrams of a compression/expansion vessel for thesystem of FIG. 1 with an internal heat exchanger, and respectivedifferent hydraulic fluid levels;

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram showing components of the system of FIG. 1during compression of gas for storing energy in which acompression/expansion vessel has a maximum amount of hydraulic fluidtherewithin and another compression/expansion vessel has a minimumamount of hydraulic fluid therewithin;

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram showing components of the system of FIG. 1during compression of gas for storing energy in which bothcompression/expansion vessels have more than the minimum and less thanthe maximum amounts of hydraulic fluid therein;

FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram showing components of the system of FIG. 1during expansion of gas for releasing energy in which bothcompression/expansion vessels have more than the minimum and less thanthe maximum amounts of hydraulic fluid therein;

FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram of an alternative embodiment of a gasstorage subsystem;

FIG. 8 is an alternative embodiment of a system for storing andretrieving energy using compressed gas;

FIG. 9 is a graph showing variation of power output/input of agenerator/motor over time;

FIG. 10 is a graph showing variation of angular speed of rotation andvariation of power output/input of the generator/motor over time;

FIG. 11 is a graph showing variation of exciter current of thegenerator/motor with the variation of angular speed over time forsmoothing the power output/input variations;

FIG. 12 is a graph showing the resultant variation of power output/inputof the generator/motor over time as a result of variation of excitercurrent as showing in FIG. 11;

FIG. 13 shows the hydraulic pump volume and flow direction variationswith time;

FIG. 14 is a schematic circuit diagram of a circuit for conditioningthree phase power being applied to (released via) a generator/motorduring storing (retrieving) of energy;

FIG. 15 shows output voltage waveform as a result of filtered pulsewidth modulation;

FIG. 16 shows a compression/expansion vessel in cooperation with anisolation cylinder for a two-liquid buffered configuration;

FIG. 17 shows a compression/expansion vessel with two layers of liquidtherein for a two-liquid un-buffered configuration;

FIG. 18 shows two compression/expansion vessels for an alternativeembodiment of a two-liquid buffered configuration with a solid piston;

FIG. 19 is a schematic diagram of an uninterruptible power supply;

FIG. 20 is a schematic diagram of a rectification stage for theuninterruptible power supply of FIG. 19;

FIG. 21 is a schematic diagram of an alternative rectification stage forthe uninterruptible power supply of FIG. 19;

FIG. 22 is a schematic diagram of voltage rectification, smoothing andinverting stages of the uninterruptible power supply of FIG. 19;

FIG. 23 is a schematic diagram of the output stage of theuninterruptible power supply of FIG. 19;

FIG. 24 is a schematic diagram of one of the sets of insulated gatebipolar transistors of the output stage of FIG. 23;

FIG. 25 is a schematic diagram showing the interconnection of multiplesecondary power sources along with a primary power source to a powerbus, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 26 is a schematic diagram showing the interconnection of multiplesecondary three-phase power sources along with a primary three-phasepower source to a power bus, according to an embodiment;

FIG. 27 is a schematic diagram showing interconnection of multiplethree-phase loads to a power bus;

FIG. 28 is a schematic diagram showing a voltage switching mechanism;

FIG. 29 is a graph showing voltage variations with primary and secondarypower sources; and

FIG. 30 is a schematic diagram showing centralized control of multiplepower sources and their delivery of power to multiple loads.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS

Turning now to FIG. 1, a system for storing and retrieving (i.e.releasing) energy according to an embodiment of the invention is shownand generally identified by reference numeral 5. System 5 is controlledby a control subsystem 7 which, in this embodiment is a programmablelogic controller (PLC) but which could be implemented alternatively byanother device such as a personal computer or the like with appropriateinterface hardware. System 5 also comprises a generator/motor subsystemthat, in this embodiment, comprises a single generator/motor 10mechanically coupled to a hydraulic pump 12 with a shaft coupler so asto impart rotational force to the hydraulic pump 12 thereby to pumphydraulic fluid 13 between a first port 14 and a second port 16 of thehydraulic pump 12 during energy storing. Furthermore, generator/motor 10and hydraulic pump 12 are mechanically coupled such that hydraulic pump12 can impart rotational force to the generator/motor 10 in response tohydraulic fluid 13 being pumped between the first and second ports 14,16 during energy releasing, as will be described.

In this embodiment, generator/motor 10 is a three-phase AC (AlternatingCurrent) generator/motor with exciter windings that function as theprime mover for the hydraulic pump 12 upon application of electricalpower during storing of energy, and that function as an electricalgenerator upon rotation by the hydraulic pump 12 during releasing ofenergy.

In this embodiment, hydraulic pump 12 has a variable displacement and anover-the-centre configuration, and thereby has a shaft that rotates inonly one direction (for example, clockwise), whether hydraulic fluid 13is flowing from the first port 14 to the second port 16, or from thesecond port 16 to the first port 14. That is, despite the direction offlow of hydraulic fluid 13, throughout storing and releasing, hydraulicpump 12 rotates in a single direction. The hydraulic pump 12 comprisesfilters, valves and charge pressure circuitry for its operation. In thisembodiment, valve(s) (not shown for ensuring FIG. 1 is straightforwardto understand) in hydraulic pump 12 are each electronically controlledvia signals provided by the control subsystem 7.

A flywheel 18 is mechanically coupled to the shaft coupler formaintaining rotation during fluid flow through hydraulic pump 12,pressure changes, changes in the direction of flow between ports 14 and16 of the hydraulic fluid 13, and mode changes (i.e., from energystoring to energy releasing and vice-versa, as will be described). Theflywheel 18 provides additional angular momentum which may be convertedto electrical energy by the generator/motor by means of loss of rpm forthe short term, which in this embodiment is between about 1 and 10seconds.

A power conditioning module 19 is coupled between the generator/motor 10and electrical mains (not shown) to control the generator/motor 10 andto condition power from the generator/motor 10 for use in supplyingpower to electrical mains. In this embodiment, power condition module 19is an inverter preceded by rectification diodes and a stiff DCcapacitor. Power conditioning in the opposite direction between themains and the motor aspect of the generator/motor subsystem is of coursea similar circuit in reverse—a Variable Frequency Drive.

The hydraulic pump 12 is in fluid communication with an interior volumeof a first compression/expansion vessel 20 via a fluid line 40 that runsfrom the first port 14, through the exterior wall of the firstcompression/expansion vessel 20, and terminates near to the bottom ofits interior volume. Hydraulic fluid 13 is permitted to flow between thehydraulic pump 12 and the interior volume of first compression/expansionvessel 20 via fluid line 40.

The hydraulic pump 12 is also in fluid communication with an interiorvolume of a second compression/expansion vessel 30 via a fluid line 50that runs from the second port 14, through the exterior wall of thesecond compression/expansion vessel 30, and terminates near to thebottom of its interior volume. Hydraulic fluid 13 is permitted to flowbetween the hydraulic pump 12 and the interior volume of the secondcompression/expansion vessel 30 via fluid line 50.

Fluid lines 40 and 50 are constructed of any material or materials thatis/are capable of withstanding pressures imparted to the hydraulic fluid13 in system 5, such as steel.

In this embodiment, the hydraulic fluid 13 is KRYTOX, which is anon-flammable, non-reactive liquid suitable for use with compression ofgases that include oxygen, such as air. Other suitable hydraulic fluidsmay be employed.

The interior volume of the first compression/expansion vessel 20 is alsoin fluid communication with a gas storage subsystem 100 via a gas line60 that runs from near to the top of the interior volume of firstcompression/expansion vessel 20, through its exterior wall, to the gasstorage subsystem 100.

The interior volume of the second compression/expansion vessel 30 isalso in fluid communication with the gas storage subsystem 100 via a gasline 70 that runs from near to the top of the interior volume of secondcompression/expansion vessel 30, through its exterior wall, to the gasstorage subsystem 100.

Gas lines 60 and 70 are constructed of any material or materials thatis/are capable of withstanding pressures imparted to the gas in system5, such as steel.

At least one liquid level transducer 24 is disposed within the interiorvolume of the first compression/expansion vessel 20, and generatesliquid level signals indicative of the level of hydraulic fluid 13within the first compression/expansion vessel 20. Similarly, at leastone liquid level transducer 34 is disposed within the interior volume ofthe second compression/expansion vessel 30, and generates signalsindicative of the level of hydraulic fluid 13 within the secondcompression/expansion vessel 30. Control subsystem 7 receives the liquidlevel signals from liquid level transducers 24, 34 for controllingsystem 5 accordingly. Generally, the control subsystem 7 ensures thathydraulic fluid 13 does not enter gas lines 60, 70. The liquid leveltransducers 24, 34 generate respective signals that can be received bycontrol subsystem 7 outside of the first and secondexpansion/compression vessels 20, 30. It will be understood that suchsignals may be provided to control subsystem 7 by wire or by both wireand wirelessly.

A first internal heat exchanger 22 is also disposed within the interiorvolume of the first compression/expansion vessel 20, and a secondinternal heat exchanger 32 is also disposed within the interior volumeof the second compression/expansion vessel 30. Each of the internal heatexchangers 22, 32 functions to exchange heat between any hydraulic fluid13 within the compression/expansion vessels 20, 30 and any gas withinthat is being compressed/expanding within respectivecompression/expansion vessels 20, 30. The heat exchanger existseverywhere within the volume of the compression/expansion modules and isthermally massive (physical density approximately 1 gm/cc) and porous(displacing less than 25% of the available volume). Because the internalheat exchanger is thermally massive relative to the gas, and everywhere,it is difficult for the gas to change temperature much, and the processremains quasi-isothermal. As the liquid of the liquid piston passes inand out of this porous massive internal heat exchanger, it captures theheat trapped within the heat exchanger, so the heat is transferred tothe liquid hydraulic fluid.

A first external heat exchanger 42 associated with the fluid line 40functions to exchange heat between hydraulic fluid 13 within the fluidline 40 and the ambient atmosphere. Similarly, a second external heatexchanger 52 associated with the fluid line 42 functions to exchangeheat between hydraulic fluid 13 within the fluid line 42 and the ambientatmosphere.

First internal heat exchanger 22, second internal heat exchanger 32,first external heat exchanger 42 and second external heat exchanger 52generally cooperate to provide heat exchange between the ambientatmosphere outside of the first and second compression/expansion vessels20, 30 and the gas within the first and second compression/expansionvessels 20, 30. Such heat exchange is important for maintaining systemefficacy and efficiency by enabling quasi-isothermal conditions to existwith system 5. As a result, the gas under compression expansion and eventhe hydraulic fluid 13 is generally maintained at a substantiallyconstant temperature.

United States Patent Application 2007/0258828 (Adler et al.) disclosesthat with a liquid piston compressor, it is possible to mount a heatexchanger within the compression chamber of a liquid piston gascompressor. It is also mentioned that passive heat exchange may bepossible by partially filling the volume with spheres or plates.

PCT Application 2010/135658 A2 (Aborn and Ingersoll) disclose that thincup like structures can be used within the apparatus to catch gasbubbles, and thereby improve the heat exchange.

U.S. Pat. No. 7,802,426 (Bollinger) discloses that high efficiencynear-isothermal compression of gas may be achieved by externallycirculating a stream of that gas through an external heat exchanger. Itis taught that, if rates of compression and heat exchange flow arechosen appropriately, and the compression rate is sufficiently slow thennear-isothermal results may be achieved.

PCT Application Publication WO 2008/139267 (Lemofouet et al.) disclosesthat heat exchange within the compression chamber may be achieved byturning the liquid into a shower of droplets as it fills the compressionchamber.

PCT Application Publication WO 2009/034421 (Lemofouet et al.) teachesthat the heat exchanger may be much more effective in both compressionand expansion if it is implemented as a structure of many small tubes(something like a conventional heat exchanger) with one independent flowfor liquid piston gas compression, and the other for merely flowing heatexchanging fluid past the encapsulated compression or expansion process.

In this embodiment of the invention disclosed herein, internal heatexchangers 22 and 32 are identical to each other, and are made of metalfoam. It is preferable that the internal heat exchangers 22, 32 are eachdistributed throughout substantially the entire interior volume of itsrespective vessel 20, 30 so that access to heat exchange is availablenearby (about 1 millimeter or less, preferably) to moleculessubstantially throughout the entire interior volume. Thus, there isprovided a large, available, thermal mass for heat transfer. In thisway, quasi-isothermal operation of the system 5 can be best maintained.Preferably, for metal foam internal heat exchangers 22, 32,substantially all pores in the metal foam have a size that is less thanabout 5 cubic millimetres. However, alternative structures may beprovided that are not as efficient at transferring heat between the gasand the hydraulic fluid 13 (or other liquid piston material in atwo-liquid system as will be described) and that thus provide less rapidheat transfer. Care should be taken with the configurations of internalheat exchangers 22 and 32, because in practical systems the timerequired to compress or expand gas inversely proportional to the powerlevels achievable with such systems, and similarly is inverselyproportional to the “value” of the compressor, which would without suchcare have a lower free air delivery (FAD) or effective power level.

Alternatively, internal heat exchangers 22, 32 may be positioned onlynear to the top of the interior volume of its respectivecompression/expansion vessel 20, 30 where molecules' access to heatexchange is most critical for providing quasi-isothermal operation ofsystem 5 due to the rapidity of temperature changes in the gas beingcompressed or expanding.

Using mesh or metal foam, the percentage of compression volume filled bythe internal heat exchangers 22, 32, despite the ubiquity of the heatexchangers 22, 32 within the internal volumes, can be maintained at 25%and even down to 3% of the compression volume.

While metal foam or mesh has been referenced in embodiments describedabove for the internal heat exchangers 22, 32, it will be understoodthat alternatives are possible. For example, internal heat exchange maysimilarly be provided by a highly porous sintered plug of metal, and/orby a tightly wound metal coil, and/or by a subsystem of formed tubes orfingers of conductive material. Conductive materials such as metalschosen may be copper and/or aluminum. Other materials may be used forthe internal heat exchangers 22, 32, as desired. Furthermore, theinternal heat exchangers 22, 32 may be connected to the fluid lines 40,50, or be integrated with fluid lines 40, 50 in some manner.

FIGS. 3A and 3B are diagrams of a compression/expansion vessel 20 or 30without an internal heat exchanger, and respective different hydraulicfluid levels therewithin. FIGS. 3C and 3D are diagrams of acompression/expansion vessel 20 or 30 with an internal heat exchanger inthe form of a tightly wound spiral copper mesh positioned within theinterior volume, and respective different hydraulic fluid levels.

In this embodiment, the gas storage subsystem 100 comprises a highpressure gas chamber 110 and a low pressure gas chamber 120. Gas line 60from first compression/expansion vessel 20 provides for fluidcommunication with the high pressure gas chamber 110 for the exchange ofgas, depending on whether a first high pressure chamber gas valve(FHPcV) 112 is controlled to be open or closed. Similarly, gas line 70from second compression/expansion vessel 30 provides for fluidcommunication with the high pressure gas chamber 110 for the exchange ofgas, depending on whether a second high pressure chamber gas valve(SHPcV) 114 is controlled to be open or closed. Also, gas line 60 fromfirst compression/expansion vessel 20 provides for fluid communicationwith the low pressure gas chamber 120 for the exchange of gas, dependingon whether a first low pressure chamber gas valve (FLPcV) 122 iscontrolled to be open or closed. Also, gas line 70 from secondcompression/expansion vessel 30 provides for fluid communication withthe low pressure gas chamber 120 for the exchange of gas, depending onwhether a second low pressure chamber gas valve (FLPcV) 124 iscontrolled to be open or closed. Electrical control of the open/closedstates of FHPcV 112, SHPcV 114, FLPcV 122 and SLPcV 124, and therebycontrol for the storing and releasing of gas in gas storage subsystem100 is provided by control subsystem 7 as will be described herein.

Gas pressure transducers (not shown so as to ensure FIG. 1 isstraightforward to read) for measuring gas pressure within eachcompression/expansion vessel 20, 30, each of the high pressure and lowpressure gas chambers 110, 120 are provided and communicate with thecontrol subsystem 7 for providing pressure data for the gas within thesecomponents. This pressure data is received by the control subsystem 7and used during control of the operation of system 5. Furthermore, oneor more hydraulic liquid pressure transducers (not shown so as to ensureFIG. 1 is straightforward to read) for measuring hydraulic fluidpressure in the system 5 is/are provided and communicate with thecontrol subsystem 7 for providing pressure data for the hydraulic fluidin the system 5.

FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of connections of the control subsystem 7in communication with various components of the system 5, to bothreceive and to transmit control signals to and from pressuretransducers, electronic valves, hydraulic pump 12, and so forth.

The general operation of system 5 for storing and releasing energy willnow be described with reference to FIGS. 4, 5 and 6.

FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of components of system 5, when in aninitial state. As shown, compression/expansion vessel 20 is at a maximumlevel of hydraulic fluid 13, and compression/expansion vessel 30 is at aminimum level of hydraulic fluid 13. In this state, the controlsubsystem 7 has provided signals such that FLPcV 122 is open, FHPcV 112is closed, SLPcV 124 is closed, and SHPcV 114 is open.

Control subsystem 7 provides signals such that the hydraulic pump 12 isoperating as a pump with the flow of hydraulic fluid 13 moving fromfirst port 14 to second port 16. IN this condition, generator/motor 10is driving the hydraulic pump 12, as is shown in FIG. 6. Asgenerator/motor 10 rotates the hydraulic pump 12, hydraulic fluid 13 ispumped from first port 14 to second port 16, overcoming a pressuredifference Δp between the high pressure gas storage chamber 110 and thelow pressure gas storage chamber 120. The electrical energy driving thegenerator/motor 10 is thereby being converted and stored as potentialenergy by virtue of the gas pressure differential between the gasstorage chambers 110, 120.

At any moment in this cycle when the level of the liquid in the firstcompression/expansion vessel 20 is less than a maximum level, and thelevel of the liquid in the second compression/expansion vessel 30 isgreater than a minimum level, as gauged by respective fluid leveltransducers, the system 5 can be changed in state from energy storing toenergy releasing. This can be achieved by reversing the direction offlow of hydraulic fluid 13 within the hydraulic pump 12, and allowingthe hydraulic fluid 13 to impart force to the hydraulic pump 12 so as torotate its shaft and drive the generator/motor 10, as shown in FIG. 5.

Because hydraulic pump 12 has an “over the center” configuration,reversing the direction of flow does not change the direction ofrotation of the shaft of the hydraulic pump 12. As a result, the angularmomentum is not significantly perturbed. The settling/transition timefor the “over the center” pump to perform this reversal could be on theorder of 0.1 second, and during this settling/transition time theangular momentum of the flywheel 18 maintains rotation at a nearlyconstant angular velocity.

For a change in state from energy storing to energy releasing, thegenerator/motor 10 now operates as a generator, and as electricityproduced by the generator/motor 10 is used by an electrical load, thegenerator/motor 10 provides back torque that resists the rotation of thehydraulic pump 12 and absorbs the mechanical energy being generated fromthe hydraulic pump 12 (which is, at this point, acting as a motor drivenby the gas pressure differential.

It will appreciated that, while system 5 is capable of switching fromstoring to releasing in the middle of a cycle (i.e., middle being “notat the end”) as described above, switching does not have to occurmid-cycle. When switching from energy storage to energy retrieval, orfrom retrieval to storage in general the fluid flow directions will bereversed (i.e. from left to right, to right to left, or vice versa), andthe hydraulic pump 12 will switch from pumping to being driven (or beingdriven to pumping) during the same transitional time as the electricalgenerator/motor 10 switches from motor to generator (or generator tomotor).

If storing during left to right flow of hydraulic fluid throughhydraulic pump 12 were to continue instead of being interrupted asdescribed above for retrieval, the current “stroke” would end when thelevel of hydraulic fluid 13 in the first compression/expansion vessel 20reached at a minimum level, corresponding to level of hydraulic fluid 13in the second compression/expansion vessel 30 reaching a maximum level,as determined using, in this embodiment, the fluid level transducers. Atthe end of this stroke the storing could continue upon occurrence of adifferent transition. As a backup for the fluid level transducers,pressure and temperature sensors can be used for redundancy.

For the transition, the hydraulic pump 12 would be controlled by controlsubsystem 7 to reverse the direction of flow of the hydraulic fluid 13through the hydraulic pump 12. Furthermore, as described above the shaftof the hydraulic pump 12 would continue to rotate in the same directiondue to its over-the-centre configuration, and during this flow directionchange the flywheel 18 would smooth the angular momentum of the shaft ofthe hydraulic pump 12. However, the states of valves 112, 114, 122, 124would be carefully reversed.

Prior to reversal, however, those of gas valves 112, 114, 122, 124 thatare open at the time of transition to the subsequent power stroke wouldbe closed by control subsystem 7. With all such previously-open gasvalves having been closed, SLPcV 124 would then be opened. Since at thispoint there would be no gas within the second compression/expansionvessel 30 (due to the hydraulic fluid 13 being at a maximum level withinthat vessel) at that time, little or no gas would flow but the pressurewould thereby be permitted to equilibrate between the hydraulic liquid13, and the gas in the low pressure gas storage chamber 120.

As the generator/motor 10 provides power to the re-engaged but reversedhydraulic pump 12, the hydraulic pump moves hydraulic fluid 13 from thesecond compression/expansion vessel 30 to the firstcompression/expansion vessel 20, thereby compressing the gas therein.When the gas pressure in the first compression/expansion vessel 20generally reaches equilibrium with the gas pressure in the high pressuregas storage chamber 110, as determined by the control system 7responsive to signals from pressure transducers as described above, theFHPcV 112 is opened.

When the level of the hydraulic liquid 13 is again effectively at itsminimum in the second compression/expansion vessel 30 and accordinglythe level of the hydraulic liquid 13 in the first compression/expansionvessel 20 is effectively full, then the cycle reverses again. Duringthis reversal to effect another storing stroke, the hydraulic pump 12 isagain caused selected by the control subsystem 7 to change direction offlow of hydraulic fluid 13, so that flow from pump port 14 to pump port16 changes to flow from pump port 16 to pump port 14. Again, theflywheel 18 maintains the rotation of the generator/motor 10 and thehydraulic pump 12. The control subsystem 7 also closes each of FHPcV112, SHPcV 114, FLPcV 122 and SLPcV 124.

At this point, the control subsystem 7 opens FLPcV 122 to put firstcompression/expansion vessel 20 in fluid communication with the lowpressure gas storage chamber 120, and flow of hydraulic fluid 13 frompump port 14 to pump port 16 is commenced. When enough compression hasbeen achieved so that pressure is almost in equilibrium between thesecond compression/expansion vessel 30 and the high pressure gas storagechamber 110, the SHPcV 114 is opened to put high pressure gas storagechamber 110 in fluid communication with the second compression/expansionvessel 30.

In the event that a retrieval cycle were to be started at this point,then FHPcV 112 would be opened to put the first compression/expansionvessel 20 in fluid communication with the high pressure gas storagechamber 110, and SLPcV 124 would be opened to put the secondcompression/expansion vessel 30 in fluid communication with the lowpressure gas storage chamber 120.

Various strategies can be employed on retrieval of energy (expansion anddischarge of pressurized gas), one of which is to leave FHPcV 112 openjust until the proportion of hydraulic fluid 13 in the firstcompression/expansion vessel 20 matches the ratio of the gas pressure inthe low pressure gas storage chamber 120 to the gas pressure in the highpressure gas storage chamber 110. Regardless of the exact moment chosento cycle the high pressure gas valve (or the high and low pressurevalves) the next “stroke” in retrieval would begin when liquid level inthe first compression/expansion vessel 20 had reached its minimum, andwhen the liquid level in the second compression/expansion vessel 30 hadreached its maximum. At that point, all of the gas valves would beclosed.

However, the next stroke would begin with a command to the hydraulicpump 12 to reverse fluid flow so that the next stroke would commencewith fluid flow from pump port 16 to pump port 14, with the hydraulicpump 12 acting as a motor, and the electrical generator/motor 10 actingas a generator. The SLPcV 124 would be opened to thereby enabling fluidcommunication between the low pressure gas storage chamber 120 and thesecond compression/expansion vessel 30. Also, the SHPcV 114 would beopened so that differential in the gas pressures would continue to drivethe fluid, but in this stroke the drive would be from the pump port 16to the pump port 14. The moment of closure for the valve connecting thehigh pressure gas storage chamber 110 to the secondcompression/expansion vessel 30 would correspond to the proportion oflevels of hydraulic fluid matching the proportion of gas pressures, assimilarly described above.

FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram of an alternative embodiment in whichvalves between the gas storage subsystem and the compression/expansionvessels can in fact be “doubled” so that lockstep timing of the openingand closing of the valves is not as critical. In this alternativeembodiment, a uni-directional poppet valve will only allow the gas toescape from the vessel under compression when the pressure in thecompression vessel equals or slightly exceeds that in the high pressuregas chamber. In fact “doubling” of the gas valves is necessary if theelectronically controlled valves are uni-directional by design. If thevalves are “doubled” then a reversal between storage and retrieval ofenergy also requires a reversal of which of the pair of valves iselectronically selected.

The above storing/retrieval process can be applied successfully if thehydraulic liquid is an ionic liquid (or a hydraulic liquid thatsimilarly absorbs no gas so that the phenomenon of cavitation cannothappen), or if the pressure differences between the low and highpressure gas storage chambers are maintained at a small ratio, such as 3or 5.

One problem with restricting the pressure ratios is that the energydensity which can be achieved is restricted to a small percentage ofwhat could be possible given the sizes of the chambers. One problem withthe use of ionic liquids is they are quite expensive—on the order ofabout 500 times more expensive than mineral oil.

In order to address the problem of expensive ionic liquids, one couldemploy a less expensive liquid such as KRYTOX—a fluorinated vacuum pumpoil with a density of 2.1 formulated to be non-reactive with oxygen—forthe bulk of the liquid, but to also float a small guard layer of trueionic liquid (with a higher density such as 1.4) on top of the KRYTOX toprotect the gas/liquid interface. However, the liquid levels would haveto be controlled such that the ionic liquid remained entirely within thecompression/expansion vessels 20, 30 and was not drained into thehydraulic pump 12. As a result, the strokes would be controlled to beshorter.

If mineral oil were chosen then the pressure regimes would need to berestricted to small ratios like 3 or 5, and the gas incompression/expansion vessels 20, 30 would then have to be chosencarefully to ensure no reactive or explosive mixtures occur. Nitrogenmight be chosen, for example. On the other hand, if ionic liquid (likeEMIM TFSI) or KRYTOX with an ionic cap layer were used, then the gaswithin the compression expansion vessels 20, 30 could be air.

If air is used in the compression expansion vessels 20, 30 and theoperating or maximum pressures are chosen such that the high pressuregas storage chamber 110 holds up to 5000 psi or greater, then it ispossible to use a “single” reservoir system with two adjunct pieces ofhardware: a screw or other mechanical compressor to “pre-charge” or filla low pressure gas storage chamber prior to the final low ratiocompression with liquid pistons, and an air engine to discharge excessexpanded air back to atmospheric pressure. The low pressure gas storagechamber would be maintained as a working reservoir at a pressure ofbetween 300 psi and 1000 psi, for example. This would allow conventional(but inefficient) compressors to be correctly sized to gather the largevolumes of low pressure (less than 1000 psi) air used for the final lowratio but high energy compression. An alternative embodiment having thisconfiguration is shown in FIG. 8. With this configuration, 80 percent ofthe energy storage/retrieval action would occur in compressing the airin the buffer (low pressure) reservoir to its final pressure of 5000psi. Since efficiencies are high with use of a quasi-isothermal liquidpiston compressor described above, efficiencies of that process can beexpected to be over 80 percent. Efficiencies expected from eitherconventional compression into the buffer reservoir, or expansion throughan air engine are expected to be in the range of 30 percent (comparableto conventional compressed air energy storage, or CAES) but the highlosses would be confined to the 20 percent of energy available in the“low pressure” compression expansion between 1 atmosphere and 60atmospheres, so that the total loss is limited to 30 percent (totalefficiency of about 70 percent).

Of this 30 percent loss, 14 percent comes from the low pressure portionof the process (70 percent of 20 percent), and the remaining 16 percent(representing 20 percent of the 80 percent) from the high pressurecycle. This still allows for very high overall energy storage/retrievalefficiencies, with only one large reservoir required as the site ofenergy storage.

Such a single large reservoir may conveniently be implemented as anassembly of steel tubes, or preferably as carbon fiber compositestructures. Where suitable, it can be even more effective as ageological reservoir (either a salt dome, or even a depleted oil well)having a large enough capacity to store significant amounts of potentialenergy in the form of pressurized gas. Geological reservoirs offer thepossibility of storing 100's of megawatt hours and thereby bufferingsignificant wind or solar energy installations. Carbon fiber compositestructures, or steel tubes are currently less economical, but may proveeffective in providing energy storage at remote sites, or in portablevehicles.

The use of liquid pistons for compression of gases is a very active areaof current technical development. An approach is disclosed herein forisolating or restricting the absorption of gases by the hydraulicliquid, or of effecting solubility reduction of the gas within thehydraulic liquid and particular apparatuses.

United States Patent Application Publication No. 2007/0258828 A1 (Adleret al.) discloses the importance of avoiding gas absorption within aliquid piston compressor and a solution that consists of the use ofliquids which do not absorb gases. The particular liquids proposed areionic liquids. However, ionic liquids with gas solubility of less than10⁻⁴ mol/l bar available such as TFSI (trifluoromethanesulfonimide)based ionic liquids including [EMIN/1][TFSI] or [BMIM] [TFSI] are verycostly.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,021,125 (Phillip et al.) discusses means of dealing withgas absorption in hydraulic liquids associated with the very largepiston-less accumulators which might be used in pulp mills by means ofallowing gravimetric separation of gas rich liquid by means of laminarflows through long vertical tubes. This requires very large physicalstructures, and despite the great cost, is only marginally effective.

PCT Application No. PCT/US2010/035795 (Aborn et al.) proposes a solutioncomprised of inserting into the compression columns structures withumbrella like “caps” to catch gas bubbles. The required structure iscomplex, and it efficacy is not proven.

U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/813,781, and PCT Application No.PCT/CA2008/002178 (both the Kenway et al.) discloses the use of twodevices the first of an isolation piston shuttle (with appropriatecommutation valves) where a solid metal piston separates the liquid andthe gas (in a device resembling a hydraulic intensifier). The first doesnot directly relate to a liquid piston compressor, but does relate to“piston-less” accumulators. The second is of the use of low absorptionliquids like compressor fluid EXXCOLUB, or of the use a floating layerof “light oil impervious to gas” floating on top of the hydraulic fluid.

U.S. Pat. No. 7,802,426 (Bollinger) teaches that although a liquid maybe used to “drive” a piston in a compressor, that separation should bemaintained between the liquid and the gas by means of a solid piston.This approach precludes many of the thermodynamic advantages that arisefrom having the liquid in direct contact with the gas.

Gas absorption in hydraulic fluids is sought to be minimized (or gassoluble liquids must be isolated from high pressure gases) because ofthe phenomenon of cavitation in hydraulic systems. In the publicationentitled “Cavitation Wear in Hydraulic Systems”(http://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/380/cavitation-wear-hydraulic),E. C. Fitch teaches:

-   -   “The phenomenon of cavitation consists in the disruption of        continuity in the liquid where there is considerable local        reduction of pressure. The formation of bubbles within liquids        (cavitation) begins even in the presence of positive pressures        that are equal to or close to the pressure of saturated vapour        of the fluid at the given temperature. . . . The mechanism of        cavitation can be described as follows: Any liquid will contain        either gaseous or vaporous bubbles, which serve as the        cavitation nuclei. When the pressure is reduced to a certain        level, bubbles become the repository of vapour or of dissolved        eases. The immediate result of this condition is that the        bubbles increase rapidly in size. . . . It is believed that        reduction in volumetric stability in most liquids is associated        with the contents of various admixtures, such as solid unwetted        particles and gas-vapour bubbles, particularly those on a        submicroscopic level, which serve as cavitation nuclei. A        critical aspect of the cavitation wear process is surface        destruction and material displacement caused by high relative        motions between a surface and the exposed fluid. As a result of        such motions, the local pressure of the fluid is reduced. . . .        When the pressure returns to normal (which is higher than the        vapour pressure of the fluid), implosions occur causing the        cavity or vapour bubbles to collapse. This collapse of bubbles        generates shock waves that produce high impact forces on        adjacent metal surfaces and cause work hardening, fatigue and        cavitation pits. Thus, cavitation is the name given to a        mechanism in which vapour bubbles (or cavities) in a fluid grow        and collapse due to local pressure fluctuations.”

The above citation of the E. C. Fitch publication does not emphasisetemperature effects since it considers both absorbed gases as well asvapours of the hydraulic liquid. In the case of vapours, pressurechanges in the overall hydraulic liquid arising from local surface flowsmay cause a phase change and complete collapse of the “bubble”. In thecase of absorbed gases the mechanism may be significantly differentrelating to drastic temperature changes locally at the bubble, or evenexplosion of a bubble as the result of local combustion (if the bubblecontains air, oxygen or a reactive gas). Since some liquid pistoncompressor/expander designs depend upon hydraulic pumps, or motors orvalves to control and move the hydraulic liquid, minimizing absorptionof gas and increasing the isolation between gas and hydraulic liquids inwhich the gas is soluble, is an important consideration.

Embodiments of liquid pistons are considered herein.

The use of a two liquid buffered process employs one liquid for theliquid piston and a second liquid for the operation for the hydraulicpump 12. The first liquid may be, for example, ethyleneglycol/water/inhibitor based coolant for the compression of reactivegases since this liquid does not freeze or boil easily, and is alsonon-flammable and therefore does not produce an explosive mixture incombination with air). The second liquid may be, for example, hydraulicoil. The two liquids are separated by an isolator piston (of solidmaterial), such that the liquid piston liquid never passes throughcomponents likely to produce cavitation.

A two liquid system employing a buffer is shown in FIG. 16. Such anapparatus is preferably configured so that the heavier liquid is always“under” the lighter liquid. As such, even if the two liquids leak pasttheir seals, their basic order is maintained. Since the “compressionliquid” 203 is used for heat exchange it passes down through pipe 205which rises behind the isolation cylinder 204 and through 206 anexternal high pressure shell and tube heat exchanger 207 on its way fromthe compression/expansion chamber 211. The buffer piston chamber liquid203 is the same as liquid 210 and it is this liquid which passes throughthe internal heat exchange mesh inside the compression/expansionchamber. Liquid 201 is the lighter (less dense) hydraulic oil whichactually flows in and out of the conventional hydraulic pumps motors andvalves. It has no contact with the gas, and is buffered by solid piston202.

A two liquid system without a buffer is shown in FIG. 17. This systememploys a primary liquid that is a dense and non-reactive liquid likeDuPont KRYTOX vacuum pump fluids, Dupont KRYTOX NRT series oils, orhalo-carbon oils with density approximately 1.9 gm/cc. The buffer liquidis a liquid with extremely low gas solubility such as ionic liquidGEMIM][BTA], [BMIM] [BTA], or [BMMIM] [BTA] for example, having adensity of approximately 1.5 gm/cc. Since the buffer liquid floats onthe primary liquid and since only the primary liquid will pass throughthe pump (or out of the compression/expansion chamber) the buffer capwill remain floating. Furthermore, since the ionic liquid has a lowviscosity, it will easily pass through internal heat exchange structureswithin the liquid piston compression/expansion chamber.

The two liquid system without a buffer is significantly simpler since itdoes not have a buffering cylinder is unnecessary. As discussed above,the fluid levels must be controlled so that the KRYTOX or halo-carbonoil is never drained from the compression/expansion vessel. This isbecause, at this time, it is not clear that the gravimetric densityseparation which maintains the floating isolation buffer will berecoverable if the lighter ionic liquid is distributed through thecavities of the hydraulic valves, pumps, and motors in the conventionalhydraulic part of the system.

A system that employs a solid piston to isolate the first and secondports 14, 16 of the hydraulic pump is shown in FIG. 18. This embodimentis very similar to the buffered “two liquid” system shown in FIG. 16.However, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 18, the two isolation pistonsare replaced by a single structure that accepts the first and secondpump ports 14, 16 of a conventional hydraulic pump/motor (for example anaxial piston variable displacement over the center pump/motor like theLinde HPW280) and connects pump ports 14, 16 to the central two annularchambers of a structure resembling a hydraulic intensifier. The purposeof this is two fold: first, to isolate the hydraulic liquid passingthrough the motor pump from the liquid acting as the liquid piston, andsecond, to nullify any “offset pressure” or charge pressure. Manyhydraulic components require charge pressure. If a hydraulic motor orpump requires charge pressure, then pressure at the pump ports 14, 16cannot drop below the charge pressure. Since the pressures in acompression/expansion apparatus involving liquid pistons MAY drop belowan arbitrary pressure level for charge (say 300 PSI) an isolator likethe one disclosed above is necessary. If pump ports 14, 16 are bothconnected to the center two annular chambers of an intensifierstructure, and the two cylindrical volumes comprising the end chambersof the intensifier are each connected to the actual liquid pistoncompression/expansion chambers, and the volume of each of the endcylinders in the intensifier is approximately the same as the volume ofeach of the compression/expansion chambers, then the two liquids will beisolated (to minimize the absorption of gases) AND the charge pressurewill be nullified so that only the differential pressure between pumpports 14 and 16 will drive the compression/expansion liquid and thecompression/expansion process.

In an alternative embodiment, a cluster of parallel intensifierstructures may be connected in parallel each with a volume smaller thanthe compression/expansion chamber volume, but which in aggregate exceedthe compression/expansion chamber volume. If for example 4 intensifierstructures were used, each with an intensification ratio of 1, then eachcould be chosen to have a volume slightly greater than one quarter (¼)of the compression/expansion chamber volume.

Alternatively, within the cluster by appropriate piping connection, thedirection of motion of the solid pistons may be alternated, so that theacceleration of pistons produces reduced total forces and moments on themechanical structure and supports.

Alternatively, a real intensification ratio may be incorporated in theintensifier so that higher pressure hydraulics can be used with lowerpressure gases, or vice-versa (e.g. 5:1 intensification for 5000 PSI oilto compress/expand 1000 PSI gas).

For the above-described system in which energy may be delivered to ordrawn from the generator/motor 10, electrical power conditioningcircuitry is provided. That is, in order for electrical power to bedelivered under control to the generator/motor 10 (i.e., the electricalprime mover) circuitry containing elements of a variable frequency drive(VFD) is connected between the source of electrical power (the mains orpower grid) and the generator/motor itself. It will be understood thatVFDs are, in general, well-known.

For example, synthesizing of alternating current (AC) waveforms isdiscussed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,947,736 (Byers et al.), controlling of slipwithin AC induction motors by use of these synthetic drive waveforms isdiscussed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,286,203 (Ehret), use of Pulse WidthModulation (PWM) to switch the basic units of current and voltage to themotor is discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,971,972 (Stitch), the use ofsilicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) or Thyristors as a more effectiveswitching element is discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,128,793 (Stitch), andthe consideration of using all three phases (in both direct and invertedconfigurations) to provide a controllable source of voltage and currentfor complete synthesis by PWM is discussed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,618,810(Hagerman et al.).

Furthermore, U.S. Pat. No. 4,364,037 to Becke et al. discussed theinsulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) which simplified the devicesrequired to switch power. Bose et al. further discuss the principlesrequired to use these devices in the smooth control of electricalmachines.

Although the prime mover which is part of the disclosed embodiment of isnot an induction motor, close control is still important. The control ofa synchronous generator operated as a synchronous motor requiresmodifications to the strategies that govern conventional use of VFD'snormally employed to control AC induction motors.

When used as a synchronous motor both more extreme filtering againstharmonics and feedback control recognizing the slow accelerationrequired for a synchronous motor are employed to “start” the generator.The excitation current typically has to be applied as an AC waveform ofa frequency between 40 and 240 Hz in order to use the exciter windingsas “a transformer” as the generator is started from an angular speed ofzero. At this zero rpm state it is still possible to induce asignificant magnetic field in the rotor by means of using the exciterstator winding as the primary of a transformer, and the exciter rotorwinding as the secondary which receives the transformed current andrectifies it before that current flows into the main rotor windings ofthe generator being used as a motor.

The rotor is thus transformed into the equivalent of a multi-polepermanent magnet whose rotational torque is generated by the applicationof a rotating magnetic field to the stator coils of the generator. Sincethe magnetic fields and stator current intensities are still high evenwhen then rotor is static or starting, the fields generated by the “VFD”may be applied only as widely separated single half phase pulses as themotor starts to turn. If they are conventionally and continuouslyapplied, the generator (acting as a synchronous motor) may fail to startto turn or else oscillate in a more or less locked position.

The post-IGBT filtering should be both high in inductance and tuned, sothat wave forms tend to be smooth. Use of phase controlled rectifiers orIGBT's in the diode bridge can be used to achieve further smoothing. Theoutput tuning can be highly peaked (high Q) with regard to the localmains frequency, since the inverter circuit will be used to deliver“clean” power back to the mains when the system is in retrieval mode.

The initial turning of the generator as a motor should only be commencedwhen the “over the center” hydraulic pump 12 is in a “neutral” positionso it effectively offers no resistive starting torque, (or when thehydraulic pump 12 is actually acting as a motor so it generates“negative” torque and turns the generator/motor 10).

Indeed, since this apparatus is in general reversible, the gas pressuredifferential may be initially used in an “expander” mode to generatestarting torque on the over the center” pump shaft to help start turningthe generator shaft as the generator comes up to speed as a motor.

Typically operational speeds will be between 500 and 2000 rpm (e.g. 1800rpm for a 4 pole 60 Hz generator) as is appropriate for 50 and 60 Hzmulti-pole generators. The starting problems that need to be overcome bythe special means disclosed above relate to attaining the first fewhundred RPM of rotational speed on the shaft via which thegenerator/motor 10 and the hydraulic pump 12 are coupled.

A brief discussion of the time dependence of the power output, angularvelocity, and other features of this invention will follow.

Within each expansion stroke, the moment when the high pressure gas isinitially introduced into a compression/expansion vessel for expansion,is the moment when the maximum amount of power in that expansion strokeis available. Over the course of that expansion stroke the availablepower decreases. FIG. 9 is a graph showing variation of poweroutput/input of a generator/motor over time. As each stroke completes,the power drops—restarting at its peak value as the flow reverses and anew stroke commences. An inverse cycle describes the storage of energyin the compression cycle. The cycling of power in compression is equallyimportant to regulate; the regulation mechanisms are the same, but usedin the inverse.

Because of the use of an “over the center” hydraulic pump 12 as therotational element coupling the liquid flow into mechanical energy, therotational direction the pump does not need to change as the cyclesreverses. Thus, the angular momentum of the hydraulic pump 12 and theelectrical generator/motor of system 5 maintains a rotational speed thatvaries with the gain and loss of energy through thecompression/expansion cycles.

FIG. 10 is a graph showing variation of angular speed of rotation andvariation of power output/input of the generator/motor over time. Sincethe magnetism within the rotor of generator/motor 10 can be controlledby using the exciter current, it is possible to regulate the rate atwhich power goes in and out. Modulation of the exciter current peaks asthe rotational speed hits its minimum, and dips as the rotational speedhits its maximum. This enables smoothing the power variations within thestroke and cycle.

FIG. 11 is a graph showing modulation of exciter current of thegenerator/motor with the variation of angular speed over time forsmoothing the power output/input variations. The modulation of thisexciter current (or the modulation of a higher frequency carrier (40-200Hz) which describes the exciter current) provides significant regulationof the power output as shown schematically in FIG. 12, which is a graphshowing the resultant variation of power output/input of thegenerator/motor over time as a result of variation of exciter current.

This regulation of power output (or input) is achieved in co-ordinationwith control changes applied to the volume of the “over the center”hydraulic pump 12. FIG. 13 shows how these control cycles aresynchronized.

This change and reversal of volume in the “over-the-center” pump is alsoan integral part of the current invention. However, there will still befluctuations in the rotational frequency since the angular momentum ofthe system (which in this embodiment includes a flywheel 18) is itselfpart of the energy storage/retrieval system 5 providing short termenergy to fill in the voids when the compression/expansion cycle doesnot offer the possibility of significant energy storage or retrieval.

Compression/expansion cycles times for the system 5 to be employed incommon uses are anticipated to be on the order of 30 to 60 seconds.

While the flywheel 18 is intended to provide or absorb energy with atime constant on the order of a few seconds to help smooth out thecycle, variable rotational frequency requires the use of devices similarto VFD's to allow for efficient connection to main or grid power. Thisis because the rotational speed must vary somewhat from the synchronizedmotor speeds dictated by grid frequency (typically 50 or 60 Hz)). Theelectronic components which perform this function allow for isolatedrectification of incoming three-phase power, re-synthesis by means offiltering the output waveforms coming from PWM IGBT's into three-phaseoutput power at a different frequency, and the careful switching of thatpower so it can be delivered from the mains to the prime mover (or inthe opposite direction coming from the generator toward the mains with afrequency re-synthesis when power is electrically generated).

According to this embodiment, such circuits are employed to achieveVariable Frequency Drive when the motor/generator 10 is being used as amotor, and the re-use of the same circuit elements to serve as aninverter which re-samples the power produced when the motor/generator 10is being used as a generator (generating at frequencies which mustdiffer from the mains since angular speed variations are necessary tosmooth the power output).

In effect, in retrieval mode, the VFD elements produce electrical outputfor delivery to electrical mains or grid which is matched in bothfrequency and phase to the power on the grid. “Bleed” resistors areattached to the three stator windings as the generator is switchedbetween motor and generator function. Although not shown, a separatecontactor may be used to disconnect the bleed so that the efficiencyloss is limited during continuous operation.

The contactors, diodes, resistors, inductors, filter capacitors andIGBT's shown schematically in FIG. 14 illustrate one embodiment of thisdouble use of the PWM frequency synthesis power control.

In storage mode contactors S1 and S3 would be closed. In retrieval modeS2 and S4 would be closed. The sequence must be “break-before-make” sothat the S1/S3 pair is never closed simultaneously with the S2/S4 pair.

In this embodiment, the bleed resistors ensure there is an “escape” pathfor residual energy, since the generator/motor 10 will typically becontinuously turning regardless of the mode system 5 is in. When thecontactors are all open, it is also necessary that the exciter currentbe minimized to avoid excess transients. This co-ordination of excitercurrent, pump volume, pump direction, gas valves, liquid levels, andIGBT modes is all managed by the control subsystem 7.

The gate leads of the IGBT's are typically connected to a localmicrocomputer programmed to implement the appropriate starting/stopping,and running PWM strategies, and are controlled and sequenced by thecontrol subsystem 7.

These PWM strategies will typically differ from those found in aconventional VFD since most of the application will be within frequencyranges close to (but continuously slightly differing from) the frequencyof the electrical mains. Furthermore, it is possible to “tune” theoutput of the generator (or motor) by choosing an AC exciter frequencywhich “beats” with the mains frequency and rotational frequencies. TheVFD inverter control must exert control of the exciter to producemaximum smoothness in the final output waveform, as shown in FIG. 15. Itis intended that starting and stopping of system 5 are rare events, butefficiency and clean synthesis of power are required for the normaloperating condition.

Related to the above-described system 5 for energy storage and retrievalis the particular concept of use of such a system 5 in UninterruptablePower Supplies and the like.

The interruption of power in certain systems can have severeconsequences. For example, in a mill during the sawing of a log, powerfailure may result in the loss of hours of operation time while a log inmid-cut must be manually cut away due to loss of power. Even morecritical situations resulting from the loss of power may be experiencedin a reactor, or in a hospital.

In applications where interruption should be “moderated” UninterruptablePower Supplies (UPS) of various configurations are often employed. Onefundamental problem with most UPS designs lies in the mechanism forswitching between the Primary power source (usually the Mains) and

Secondary power sources. The problem is especially acute when multipletransitions are involved. For example, in situations where the Mains(grid) are the primary power source, and a “ride-through” UPS provides15 seconds to 2 minutes of power until the diesel backup generators arestarted and stabilized. In such circumstances several transitions arerequired to traverse the entire sequence and finally recover with therestoration of power to the mains.

The problems that can arise tend to become more severe in power systemswhere the power level exceeds 100 KW and, such that large amounts ofpower must be safely “switched”. It is highly desirable to develop bothprocesses and apparatus which will allow for even more generallyseamless switching between power sources at high power levels whendrop-outs or brown-outs occur in the primary AC power source, which istypically the electrical mains.

The basic concepts of back power systems and Uninterruptable PowerSupplies are well-known, and main components of one such UPS system areshown in FIG. 19.

The problems leading to non-seamless transitions from primary tosecondary power sources tend to be caused because, when used inconjunction with modern“control electronics” like VFDs, the smalltransitional “glitches” tend to trip out motor controllers, VFD'scomputers and other critical functions. Although the UPS or back uppower systems do provide power “filler”, the transitions are difficultto manage and controllers trip, metal vapor lights extinguish, orprocesses stop in the brief flicker as the backup power “kicks in”.

The concept of using high power switching semiconductors to controlmotors is taught by Byers in U.S. Pat. No. 3,947,736. The control ofslip within AC induction motors by use of these synthetic drivewaveforms is disclosed by Ehret in U.S. Pat. No. 4,286,203. The use ofPulse Width Modulation (PWM) to switch the basic units of current andvoltage to the motor is taught by Stitch in U.S. Pat. No. 3,971,972. Useof SCR's or Thyristors as more effective switching elements is taught byStitch in U.S. Pat. No. 4,128,793, and the consideration of using allthree phases in both direct and inverted configurations to provide acontrollable source of voltage and current for complete synthesis by PWMis taught by Hagerman et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 4,618,810.

Furthermore, Becke et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 4,364,037 teach the use ofIGBT's, which simplify the devices required to switch power. Bose etal., in the publication entitled Adjustable Speed AC Drive Systems, NewYork: IEEE Press, ISBN 0-87942-146-0 further teach us principles forusing these devices for the smooth control of electrical machines.

FIG. 20 is a schematic diagram of a rectification stage for theuninterruptible power supply of FIG. 19. The rectifiers shown in FIG. 20are in fact Silicon Controlled Rectifiers or SCR's. These allow verygood control of the charging, but in most applications simple solidstate diodes will suffice.

FIG. 21 is a schematic diagram of an alternative rectification stage forthe uninterruptible power supply of FIG. 19. The circuit in FIG. 21 ismore practical for higher power levels allowing for a controlledcharging of a capacitor, which stores the DC and provides theconventional stiffness of the DC bus in the original known designs.

FIG. 22 is a schematic diagram of voltage rectification, smoothing andinverting stages of a variation on the uninterruptible power supply ofFIG. 19. The appropriate filtering is provided so that the chargingcircuit produces smooth DC at the capacitor (the capacitor being thedefining nodal centre of the DC bus).

FIG. 23 is a schematic diagram of the output stage of theuninterruptible power supply of FIG. 19, and provides the resynthesizedAC waveform using the technique of Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM). This isshown schematically in FIG. 24, which isolates one of the sets of IGBTs.

According to this embodiment of the invention, a stiffened DC bus isused as the primary means of interconnection between a variety of loads(like a multiplicity of high horsepower AC motors) and both the AC Mainsand electrical storage system and backup generators. In particular,excitation is controlled in combination with the natural switchingcharacteristics of diode bridges to allow for generally more seamlesstransitions between backup and primary power sources in the case of amomentary dropout or brownout of the primary power source. Such controlcan be had via control of the exciter voltage and current applied to theexcitation coils of a synchronous AC generator.

The concept of controlling excitation for providing generally moreseamless transitions is applicable to motor control for criticalfunctions (or backup power for critical functions) since centralizingthe interconnection at the DC bus level permits Variable Frequency Drive(VFD) drive functions to be delivered with greater economy to a numberof motors or loads distributed throughout a factory or largeinstallation with the simultaneous benefit of providing ride throughprotection.

The “stiffening” of the DC bus and the control of excitation withinmultiple AC generators (a function which in prior art has been managedlocally within each generator by a so called AVR or automatic voltageregulation circuit) to create threshold levels, and the variation oftraditional PWM strategies in the IGBT output stages to create“resilience” against small changes in the DC Bus values, can render theDC bus suitable as a “factory wide” or institution wide connectionpoint.

According to an embodiment, multiple secondary power sources and aprimary power source are connected in parallel to a DC bus, as shown inFIG. 25. This bus is “stiffer” than the DC bus within a normal VFD orUPS because it has multiple possible sources of DC voltage. It mayfurther be stiffened by the addition of supercapacitors, as suggested inEPRI, Sandia, NETL materials like Energy Storage for Distributed EnergyResources and Other Electric Power Systems (2003).

As well, the DC bus may be stiffened further by connecting batteries assecondary power sources.

Even without the parallel AC sources such a DC bus already has theadvantage that it is relatively stable, depending primarily on thedischarge time of the capacitors, supercapacitors, or batteries into theload.

In large power systems the secondary sources of three phase AC power areusually also AC alternators or generators, as shown in FIG. 26.

In order to interconnect multiple secondary power sources with a primarysource in this way, excitation voltages are managed so that high powergenerators can remain on “standby” as asynchronous “spinning” reservewith sub-cycle switching time courtesy of the shared diode switchingavailable as part of the “stiff DC bus” structure.

Automatic Voltage Regulation (AVR) has traditionally been an analogfunction and, although digital control of AVR exists, and common digitalcontrol is sometimes used in large power generation facilities for themanagement of synchronous resources, the “stiff DC bus” provides animprovement. The traditional AVR is in fact removed, and replaced by acomputer controlled exciter current (by means of a digital to analog, orD/A, converter attached to the control computer, or an Analog outputmodule attached to a PLC. The excitation current on the generator withinthe apparatus is held at a level which produces a rectified output “justbelow” the voltage level produced by rectifying the mains. Since theshaft of the apparatus is always turning and it requires only therelease of gas pressure via the solenoid valves, and the movement of the“swash plate” within the over the center pump to release that power tothe shaft of the generator, the gentle control of the excitation currentprovides a smooth means of transitioning between several large highpower sources sharing the “stiff DC bus”.

For example, the generators feeding a “stiff DC bus” do not need to besynchronized with each other. This implies that flywheels, or otherenergy storage retrieval devices (like system 5 described above andalternatives thereof) which produce their AC output through spinninggenerators or alternators may be held at standby simply by holding theirexcitation voltage at a level just low enough that ordinary variationsin the “stiff DC bus” do not traverse the peak rectified voltage levelfrom that particular AC source.

Thus, if the primary source drops out or browns out, the power withinthe spinning AC alternators is drawn upon as the DC bus droops below thediode threshold for the particular secondary power source. This offersgenerally seamless transition to the secondary sources, and allowsflywheels or systems such as system 5 and alternatives described herein,which provide 15 seconds to 2 minutes of power, to maintain the DCvoltage level and retard the rate of droop.

If all the loads are attached via independently controlled IGBT inverterblocks, as shown in FIG. 27, smooth control of critical loads can bemanaged in the event of a failure of the primary power source.

Priority loads can be maintained for as long as is necessary (perhapsindefinitely if the load is operating theatre power, or the cooling pumpon a nuclear reactor). Non priority loads can be browned out orsequenced out smoothly since the inverted AC power that drives them isindividually controlled by IGBT output blocks.

Such semiconductor output blocks have almost no cost (in comparison to,for example, a fully implemented VFD) and would offer at the very leastsoft starting of motors/loads at all times. However, these IGBT blocksare useful since the algorithm for the PWM module control can bemodified to allow for some “droop” in the DC bus.

Such droop is inevitable with the use of the diode switching to provideseamless transition of power sources as shown in FIG. 29. It can bealleviated in part by gently raising excitation voltages on thesecondary AC alternators as each of them “comes into play” in the powermanagement. As each exciter voltage rises, so will the AC voltageassociated with the particular alternator, and that source will thenpredominate in the diode switching which gives access to the “stiff DCbus”.

FIG. 28 illustrates the basic voltage switching mechanism.

FIG. 30 illustrates centralized control for the overall powermanagement. The variation in the PWM strategy (from conventional)required to overcome droop can be simply expressed in the concept thatthe nominal set voltage of the “stiff DC bus” is set higher than wouldordinarily be required so that the pulse widths and density of pulsesrequired to achieve ordinary operation are shorter and lower thanordinary. As droop sets in (to the 5 or 10% limit required in this typeof process or apparatus) the pulse widths and densities then “degrade”to normal. This requires a choice of slightly higher voltage IGBT's butthe cost premium should not be significant.

The “stiff DC bus” structure also may require the physical running ofhigh voltage DC cables throughout factories or facilities utilizing thisprocess or this type of apparatus.

Although embodiments have been described, those of skill in the art willappreciate that variations and modifications may be made withoutdeparting from the purpose and scope thereof as defined by the appendedclaims.

For example, while embodiments have been described above as employing aunitary generator/motor subsystem, in an alternative embodiment, thegenerator/motor subsystem may comprise a generator that is a separatecomponent from the motor. As such, the shaft to which the hydraulic pump12 is coupled would also be coupled to two components: a motor and agenerator. With such a configuration, the motor could be selected and/ortuned to the requirements of receiving power externally and driving thehydraulic pump, and the generator could separately be selected and/ortuned to the requirements of being driven by the hydraulic pump andgenerating electricity.

The generator may be oversized, such that if for example it is desiredto generate 100 kW, a generator is selected that is capable ofgenerating a multiple of the desired power. While the cost of the systeminfrastructure would likely increase, operational efficiencies would begained because the heat loss in a larger generator operating within avery efficient range would be less than the heat loss in a smallergenerator perhaps operating outside of its most efficient range.

What is claimed is:
 1. A system for storing and releasing energy,comprising: a generator/motor subsystem; a hydraulic pump for pumpinghydraulic fluid between first and second pump ports in response to forceapplied by the generator/motor subsystem and also capable of impartingforce to the generator/motor subsystem in response to hydraulic fluidbeing caused to flow between the first and second pump ports; a firstcompression/expansion vessel for exchanging hydraulic fluid with thehydraulic pump via the first pump port; a second compression/expansionvessel for exchanging hydraulic fluid with the hydraulic pump via thesecond pump port; a gas storage subsystem for selectively storing gasfrom, or releasing gas to, the first and second gascompression/expansion vessels; an internal heat exchanger within each ofthe first and second compression/expansion vessels for exchanging heatbetween the hydraulic fluid and the gas therein, each internal heatexchanger having a very large thermal mass relative to the mass of gaswithin the first and second compression/expansion vessels; a controlsubsystem for controlling at least a plurality of gas valves associatedwith the gas storage subsystem to switch between the storing andreleasing, wherein, during storing, responsive to hydraulic fluid beingpumped by the hydraulic pump between the first and second pump ports,gas is caused to be compressed in the gas storage subsystem thereby tostore energy, and wherein, during releasing, responsive to pressure fromrelease of compressed gas from the gas storage subsystem, hydraulicfluid is forced to flow between the first and second pump ports therebyto release energy.
 2. The energy storage/retrieval system of claim 1,wherein the gas storage subsystem comprises: a high pressure gas chamberfor selectively exchanging gas with the first or secondcompression/expansion vessel responsive to open/closed states ofrespective gas valves; and a low pressure gas chamber for selectivelyexchanging gas with the first or second compression/expansion vesselresponsive to open/closed states of respective gas valves.
 3. The energystorage/retrieval system of claim 2, wherein each internal heatexchanger comprises a mesh or metal foam and the density of the mesh ormetal foam is substantially increased in the top portion of therespective vessel where the heat of compression or expansion isgreatest.
 4. The energy storage/retrieval system of claim 3, wherein themesh or metal foam is substantially denser than the gas undercompression.
 5. The energy storage/retrieval system of claim 4, whereineach internal heat exchanger fills less than about 25 percent of theinterior volume of the respective vessel.
 6. The energystorage/retrieval system of claim 5, wherein each internal heatexchanger fills about 3 percent of the interior volume of the respectivevessel.
 7. The energy storage/retrieval system of claim 4, wherein theaggregate density of the mesh or metal foam is 1 gm/cc and the fillfactor is less than 25% of the available volume in theexpansion/compression chamber.
 8. The energy storage/retrieval system ofclaim 3, wherein each internal heat exchanger is a metal foam.
 9. Theenergy storage/retrieval system of claim 8, wherein substantially allpores in the metal foam are less than about 5 cubic millimeters in size.10. The energy storage/retrieval system of claim 3, wherein eachinternal heat exchanger is a highly porous sintered plug of metal. 11.The energy storage/retrieval system of claim 3, wherein each internalheat exchanger is a coil.
 12. The energy storage/retrieval system ofclaim 11 wherein each internal heat exchanger comprises at least one ofcopper, aluminum.
 13. The energy storage/retrieval system of claim 3,further comprising an external heat exchanger in contact with thehydraulic fluid for exchanging heat between the hydraulic fluid and theambient.
 14. The energy storage/retrieval system of claim 1, furthercomprising a flywheel associated with the generator/motor subsystem. 15.The energy storage/retrieval system of claim 1, further comprising apower conditioning module associated with the generator/motor subsystemfor conditioning electrical power from the generator/motor subsystemduring the releasing.
 16. The energy storage/retrieval system of claim1, wherein the hydraulic pump is configured to rotate in the samedirection whether hydraulic fluid is flowing from the first pump port tothe second pump port or from the second pump port to the first pumpport.
 17. The energy storage/retrieval system of claim 1, furthercomprising pressure transducers for communicating data to the controlsystem regarding gas pressure within each of the first and secondcompression/expansion vessels, and within the gas storage subsystem. 18.The energy storage/retrieval system of claim 1, wherein at least one ofthe first and second compression/expansion vessels houses a respectiveliquid level transducer for communicating data to the control systemregarding hydraulic liquid level within the compression/expansionvessel.
 19. The energy storage/retrieval system of claim 1, wherein thehydraulic fluid is a non-flammable, non-reactive fluid.
 20. The energystorage/retrieval system of claim 19, further comprising, between thegas and the hydraulic fluid within each of the first and secondcompression/expansion vessels, a second fluid that is non-flammable andnon-reactive, and is lower in density and has higher impermeability thanthe hydraulic fluid.
 21. The energy storage/retrieval system of claim20, wherein the second fluid is an ethylene glycol/water/inhibitor basedcoolant.
 22. The energy storage/retrieval system of claim 20, whereinthe hydraulic fluid and the second fluid are separated by an isolatorpiston.
 23. The energy storage/retrieval system of claim 20, wherein thehydraulic fluid and the second fluid are directly adjacent to eachother.
 24. The energy storage/retrieval system of claim 22 or claim 23,wherein the first and second compression/expansion vessels areconfigured such that the heavier of the hydraulic fluid and the secondfluid is below the lighter of the hydraulic fluid and the second fluid.25. The energy storage/retrieval system of claim 23, wherein the secondfluid is an ionic fluid with a density of about 1.5 gm/cc.
 26. Theenergy storage/retrieval system of claim 25, wherein the ionic fluid isselected from the group consisting of: EMIM BTA, BMIM BTA, and BMMIMBTA.
 27. The energy storage/retrieval system of claim 1, wherein thegenerator/motor subsystem comprises a unitary generator/motor.
 28. Theenergy storage/retrieval system of claim 1, wherein the generator/motorsubsystem comprises both a generator and a motor, each of which aremechanically connected to the hydraulic pump.